THE RESEARCH QUESTION

The first issue is whether the researchers have set out to answer a sensible question. Some research questions may not address an issue that you find interesting. Different people have different agendas, and different priorities. For example, some people approach topics in developmental psychology from the point of view of classroom practice, others have an interest in parenting, and still others are mainly interested in general theoretical questions about the influence of environment on development. Each of these perspectives highlights different issues. A study that aims to improve practice may not ask the type of question that a theoretician is primarily interested in. For instance, a classroom practitioner may want to know whether color illustrations make mathematics textbooks more effective. This may be an important practical question, but knowing the answer may be of limited importance for general theories of development.
 

Occasionally, a research project may pose a question in a way that is clearly too simplistic given existing knowledge. For example, a research project that asks whether some aspect of behavioral development is caused either by information encoded in DNA or by the environment is almost certainly asking too simplistic a question. Most aspects of development are clearly influenced both by genetic preparation and the environment together. The way that the genetic blueprint unfolds is influenced by the environment.
 

Another problem you may encounter is when a research project makes assumptions about the world that you do not accept. For example, several research programs have investigated psychological differences between races of people. However, many investigators would not accept that classifying people into races is scientifically meaningful. They would argue that the variation between people within a “race” is as great as variation between races, and they would point to the way that different cultures distinguish races in different ways. Bear in mind that the rejection of assumptions should be made on scientific grounds, rather than political ones. How much genetic and behavioral variation there is within “races” is an empirical issue that can be settled scientifically, and so is a legitimate basis for arguing against race as an important aspect of human classification.

A related criticism is that, even if the research question were answered, it would not get us anywhere to know the answer. This is a criticism made most often of studies of racial differences. A critic would argue that even if we do discover that one race is on average less intelligent than another it could not possibly make any practical difference: What conceivable change to public policy could be justified by such knowledge? Of course, that is a question about the politics of research. That is, what are the implications for choices we make as a society?

Studies can also be criticized for attempting to answer questions that the discipline is not in a position to answer effectively. Some questions just cannot be answered by scientific methods. For example, how much longer would World War II have continued if the US military had not dropped atomic weapons on two Japanese cities? There is no way to know. We cannot rerun the scenario with the same politicians in charge, playing it out alternately, with and without, atomic weapons. Another example with a slightly more psychological flavor is “would John Wayne have become a cowboy or a farmer if he had lived in the nineteenth century?.” The best we can offer is an educated guess: Most probably, an actor.
 

The first thing to evaluate, then, is the research question. Is it answerable? Are its assumptions scientifically acceptable? Does it ask something interesting? One thing to bear in mind is that studies that have different objectives to your own can still be useful. For example, practical research on colored mathematics books could provide some information that a theorist would find useful if the theory made predictions that distinguished color and black and white images. For example, if you had a theory predicting that people make more use of top down information when interpreting black and white images, data on mathematics learning with black and white or color images could provide some interesting clues. Even if a study does not directly address the questions that interest you most, it can still be valuable to you.

Source of original statements :

George Dunbar. Evaluating research methods in psychology : a case study approach

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Generating possibilities, incubating and promoting at Innovation in Education and Vocational Education and Training

Over the past decade, theory and research on the adequate conditions for the generation of innovation at the system level have grown in sophistication, yet this research has focused much more on education than on vet.
using longitudinal analytic techniques, education scholars have remedied the methodological limitations that accompanied early reliance on cross-sectional designs. Scholars also have developed models that are increasingly comprehensive in their explanatory scope and trespass old divisions. indeed, some studies now provide integrated social, economic (e.g. many studies emphasise that socio-economic development is likely to influence the adoption of innovations in education, as they can be resource-intensive), political (e.g. degree
of centralization, degree of professionalization of civil servants, and levels of inter-party competition for instance), and diffusion-related explanations of innovation (mcLedon et al., 2005).

Among political determinants of innovation in education, the role of organizing the public sector along the centralisation-decentralisation continuum is a key factor in generating innovation in education. in this respect, countries such as the united States have experimented with radically different  models, and their experience can be enlightening. in the 1950s and 1960s, united States states centralised decision-making processes by granting regulatory co-ordinating boards greater power and responsibility to make centralised academic and fiscal decisions for an entire state, supplanting advisory coordinating boards that interfaced previously with governmental institutions. among the supposed benefits of centralised planning and policy development, it was argued, was greater state policy innovation (Callan, 1975; mcConnell, 1962; mortimer and mcConnell, 1982). the nonpartisan professionals that would staff the new state-level boards would bring increased technical knowledge and analytical capacity to bear on the management of postsecondary systems, thereby providing elected officials (e.g. legislatures and governors) and their staffs with new ideas for improving postsecondary access, quality, affordability, and productivity (mcLedon et al., 2005). in the 1980s and 1990s, however, there was a re-structuring of the system governance patterns (marcus, 1997) with a tendency toward “deregulation” and “decentralization” to the local level (campus) (Couturier, 2003; mactaggart, 1998; Schmidt, 2001). a frequent argument at the time was that centralised governance might inhibit policy innovation in the postsecondary arena because government bureaucracies are inherently resistant to new ideas (Berdahl and mactaggart, 2000; hebel, 2000; mactaggart, 1998). mcLedon et al., (2005) provides one of the few studies that test empirically how decentralisation affects innovation, covering the case of the uS. they report that centralised governance arrangements are positively – albeit weakly – associated with governmental adoption of new postsecondary financing policies, but not accountability policies. this finding appears to offer modest support for the claim made during the 1960s, and subsequently tested by hearn and griswold (1994), that centralised governance structures may spur state governments to adopt certain innovative postsecondary policies. no similar study looking at the relationship between governance patterns and innovation in vet was found d uring t his r eview. Stasz and Bodilly (2004) do explore how the degree of centralization of a system (measured by the number, and degree of authority, of agencies involved in decision-making and delivery of educational services) affects its capacity for policy change – including innovative change – but with a methodology less sophisticated than those of studies conducted for education, such as mcLedon et al. (2005). it concludes – as do mcLedon et al. (2005) – that centralised systems were more likely to implement innovations in certain areas, i.e. case standards, graduation requirements and assessment.

As already mentioned, the use of pilots has played an important role in incubating, promoting, and generating possibilities for innovation in vet. there indeed exists a more extensive use of pilots as incubators of future innovations in vet in relation to education as well as a greater role by international organisations in this area, particularly the eu. Looking at the role of international organisations and their piloting approach in incubating and promoting innovation, the evaluation of the LeonarDo ii programme (eCoteC, 2008) found that the role of the programme has been greater in the incubation and promotion of innovation than in the diffusion of innovation (see also next subsection). a substantial proportion of LeonarDo pilot projects had only had a modest impact on policy making, particularly in old member states – impact was greater in new member states, given their initial conditions. Project co-ordinators described the limited scope of their projects as the main reason for low impact. Whereas the programme created many valuable outcomes, they must still be better embedded into policy making processes to achieve their full impact. in this respect, greater dissemination and valorisation of results could prove useful (Janssen, 2002; eCoteC, 2008), although this approach still faces some limitations.

Examples of government initiatives to promote innovation in vet can also be found at the national level (see, for examples across a large number of countries, gill et al., 2000). Stasz and Bodilly (2004) provide an evaluation of the role of uSa federal and state policies in improving the quality of vet in secondary schools within the context of the Perkins vocational and technical education act of 1998 (Perkins iii act), which included innovation initiatives, such as the ill-defined (Stasz and Bodilly, 2004; Stasz and grubb, 1991 for a discussion in relation to Perkins ii) but central concept of integration of vocational and academic education through, amongst other tools, curricular innovations. however, this review offers limited specific information on the role of governance patterns in generating possibilities for innovation at the policy level in vet. Callan (2004), in a study based on the experience of australian vet providers, outlines specific suggestions on how to incubate and promote innovation below the policy level, namely in individual vet organisations (see also section below in this chapter on the conditions that facilitate innovation and barriers for a more general discussion, as well as Chapter 4 specifically on barriers and drivers). these are as follows:

• Bring new ideas into the organisation, encourage staff to attend conferences and workshops, to join professional groups, and to bring in outside experts who have different or new opinion about issues.
• Provide seed funding, which can be applied to initiate new projects. initially, this funding might be limited to buying-out staff time to allow them the time to progress their ideas to some form of innovation or concept plan.
• Select and promote those partnerships that allow the organisation to develop its skills and knowledge, and to have staff work closely with partners through shared working arrangements, job rotations, and exchanges of staff.
• Ss an organisation, identify whole-of-enterprise issues that can best be resolved through cross-functional teams with members from various business divisions in the organisation.
• Encourage the broad concept of communities of practice, including time for staff to meet informally and socially with others from inside and outside the enterprise to facilitate the sharing of knowledge and practical experiences.
• Build the expectation among staff and members of the institution’s board of management that staff will be putting new ideas and projects to the board for consideration, debate, and potential endorsement.
• Define and publicise a simple process which staff can work through to propose new ideas for initial consideration.
• Include within organisational websites details about innovations being considered, and invite those from both inside and outside the organisation to email comments and advice about how the idea might be further progressed. 
• Implement recognition programs that publicly support and celebrate innovative solutions to teaching and learning and to partnering and related activities.
• Encourage innovative ideas from students though the sponsorship of enterprise competition in which students can compete for cash and in-kind support to take their innovations to market.

Erlt and kremer (2006) note that the greater degree of stability (e.g. less staff fluctuation ) of german vocational colleges (Berufsschulen), as compared to english Fe colleges, also seems to allow lecturers to reflect more freely on innovative practices in general. the next subsection looks at innovation diffusion.

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Prosser’s Sixteen Theorems on Vocational Education

A Basis for Vocational Philosophy

Dr. Charles A. Prosser, the first National Director of Vocational Education, developed and publicized the following sixteen theorems as a basis for sound and successful programs. Many attempts have been made throughout subsequent years to re-phrase or update these statements, without success. There are certain minimum standards without which one may not reasonably expect to operate a program of vocational education and be effective generally in programs of either preparatory or extension education. There is little reason to believe that these basic standards have changed materially since the early development of the program. For this reason these sixteen theorems are being quoted with a short interpretation supplementing
each theorem.

1. “Vocational education will be efficient in proportion as the environment in which the learner is trained is a replica of the environment in which he must subsequently work.”

This theorem dictates that the type, kinds, amount, use and arrangement of space, materials, equipment and supplies for a preparatory program be a replica of those in employment. It has a bearing upon the length of time devoted to skill development necessary to approach industrial practice. It has implications for quality and quantity of production expected. It has direct implications for teacherlearner ratios. It relates directly to the efficiency with which a student transfers from school to employment.

2. “Effective vocational training can only be given where the training jobs are carried on in the same way with the same operations, the same tools and the same machines as in the occupation itself.”

The implications of this statement are that instructors must have recent employment experience in order to be skillful in the use of the latest equipment and must make use of the same types of tools and equipment as would be currently found in employment; and, must use live work or work identical to that provided in employment for instructional experience rather than pseudo or so-called “project” work. Emphasized here is that the skills taught should follow the same basic practices as industrial employers would expect, and learners should be able to move from the training situation to employment situation with little need for adjustment.

3. “Vocational education will be effective in proportion as it trains the individual directly and specifically in the thinking habits and the manipulative habits required in the occupation itself.” 

Two important education factors are implied in this statement. First thinking habits which implies that the scientific or problem solving method is being developed in students; and second that manipulative skills be performed with sufficient repetition that habit formation takes place. This, in turn, has implication for the length of class periods and for the total length of courses. There is also an implication here for a major aspect of the occupation, namely the technically related content where knowledge and facts are as essential for thinking, as tools are for productive work. 

4. “Vocational education will be effective in proportion as it enables each individual to capitalize his interest, aptitudes and intrinsic intelligence to the highest possible degree.”

This theorem has direct implications to class size, to individualized instruction, to instructional methods, to effective guidance and selection of learners, and to the promotional plan for the program. Here also, is that each specific vocation may well have its own unique requirements for admittance. For example, the depth and ability in mathematics could vary considerable between various occupations, as would the physical and other characteristics of individuals.

5. “Effective vocational education for any profession, calling, trade, occupation or job can only be given to the selected group of individuals who need it, want it, and are able to profit by it.” 

Vocational education is not for everyone and this statement implies that those admitted should be carefully selected through effective guidance procedures and should be potentially successful as future productive workers. Persons should be selected on the basis of their own interests and aptitudes, and on the basis of their being potentially a successful employee following preparation. 

6. “Vocational training will be effective in proportion as the specific training experiences for forming right habits of doing and thinking are repeated to the point the habits developed are those of the finished skills necessary for gainful employment.”

This statement effects one of the most crucial requirement for successful vocational preparation. Few people could be prepared to perform skillfully some work without having spent sufficient time in performing the variety of skills required so that habit formation may take place to the end that they can practice these skills at a future date. The direct implication here is for adequate lengths of time during the day, and for an adequate period of time in months to cover the skill and technical development essential for effective employment as a productive worker.

7. “Vocational education will be effective in proportional as the instructor has had successful experience in the application of skills and knowledge to the operations and processes he undertakes to teach.” 

The implication in this case is that the teacher cannot teach that which they do not know; and, since the subject matter of the vocational teacher is composed of the skills and knowledge of the occupation, it would follow that teachers who are recognized as highly competent workers themselves through actual successful employment experience would be most desirable for a vocational program. The recency of any such experience is also of utmost importance if learners are to be prepared for current expectation for employers; and this, the recency of work experience of the potential vocational teacher is implied in this theorem.

8. “For every occupation there is a minimum of productive ability which an individual must possess in order to secure or retain employment in that occupation. If vocational education is not carried to that point with that individual, it is neither personally or socially effective.”

We see in the above statement a direct bearing upon the proficiency expected of learners who wish to find their place in the world of work. Vocational education must prepare the individual to meet the employment requirements of employers. Again, to meet these employment requirements requires considerable preparation, which relates to the length of the period, day or year required for the particular offering.

9. “Vocational education must recognize conditions as they are and must train individuals to meet the demands of the “market” even though it may be true that more efficient ways of conducting the occupation may be known and that better working conditions are highly desirable.”

Vocational education programs can never exist as merely course in a school system but must be considered a community-wide project. Therefore, this statement implies the dire need for the use of craft committees; for instructors with recent employment experience; and for a program that is geared to existing opportunities in the community, the area or the state. Instruction beyond immediate needs is encouraged, but not at the cost of basic current needs of employers.

10. “The effective establishment of process habits in any learner will be secured in proportion as the training is given on actual jobs and not on exercises or pseudo jobs.” 

This theorem emphasizes again the need for practical, live work on which learners may practice developing the skills essential to an occupation. Learners cannot obtain the feel for the kind of work that will be done in employment when working on pseudo jobs or so-called projects. The work performed must be as identical and as up to date as possible with current practice in employment situations.

11. “The only reliable source of content for specific training is an occupation is in the experience of masters of that occupation.”

This statement reaffirms the need for occupational analysis as the basic method of curriculum development. It also emphasizes the importance of effective involvement of representative occupational advisory committees in assisting in curriculum planning. The occupationally competent instructor must utilize both these resources in the construction of his detailed course content.

12. “For every occupation there is a body of content which is peculiar to that occupation and to which has practically no functional value in any other occupation.”

This statement has direct implication to the close coordinated instructional program between the related technical construction and the skill development phase of the program. The application of mathematics and scientific principles to problems of the vocation should be the emphasis rather than teaching segregated subject matter courses that may or may not have direct relationship to the needs of the student. So-called broad or general areas of instruction in the subject matter unrelated to the problems at hand will have little benefit to the development of a competent worker.

13. “Vocational education will render efficient social service in proportion as it meets the specific training needs of any group at the time that they need it and in such a way they can most effectively profit by the instruction.” 

This statement emphasizes the desire on the part of an individual to learn, in that vocational education should provide what the learner wants at the time he wants it, and in relation to his own recognized
needs. This theorem has particular emphasis to the extension programs for employed workers since they will not use their own time to attend curses unless they are reaping direct benefits of immediate use from such attendance.

14. “Vocational education will be socially efficient in proportion as in its methods of instruction and its personal relations with learners it takes into consideration the particular characteristics of any particular group which it serves.”

This theorem implies that there is no single set of general characteristics such as school grades, IQs or other such characteristics that should be used as a basis for projecting vocational success; but, rather by knowing the individual student’s interests, aptitudes and abilities, he can usually be guided into successful vocational experiences or guided away from enrolling into occupations for which they are unsuited.
 

15. “The administration of vocational education will be efficient in proportion as it is elastic and fluid rather than rigid and standardized.”
 

Here the implication is for flexibility within the framework of sound standards that support good
vocational education rather than maintaining a rigid and inflexible plan. Vocational educators should be always alert to possible improvement and be willing to work toward continually adjusting the programs in light of changing employment requirements.

16. “While every reasonable effort should be made to reduce per capita cost, there is a minimum below which effective vocational education cannot be given, and if the course does not permit this minimum per capita cost, vocational education should not be attempted.”

Preparation for employment is generally more costly than general education, whether it be at the skilled, paraprofessional (technical), or professional level. This additional cost is usually dependent upon the space, equipment, materials, and the necessity for smaller class size than would be true of normal academic programs of instruction. However, this statement directly implies that it is better not to attempt a vocational program than to operate it below the economic level that would lead to success. Vocational education is not cheap education, but it is economically sound to provide it.

If every vocational educator responsible for programs of instruction would only maintain this list of sixteen theorems in front of them and make a serious effort to meet these goals, the result would, in almost every instance, be sound, quality vocational education. The more nearly a vocational program can approach the full realization of these theorems in its operation, the higher the quality of the program will be. Any attempt to disregard any one of these basic and fundamental concepts, can only result in undermining and destroying the program of vocational education for the citizens of the community.

Source of original statements:
Prosser, C. A. & Quigley, T. H. “Vocational Education in a Democracy” American Technical Society, Chicago, Illinois, 1949. 

Author(s) of interpretive text unknown. This text has been retyped from a class handout from Colorado State University’s department of Vocational Agriculture, 1985-87(?). Professors Irving C. Cross, Windol L. Wyatt, Ramsey R. Groves.

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